Diabetes is increasingly prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa, especially Type 2 diabetes. The management of diabetes in the region is affected by resource limitations, cultural practices, and access to medication.

Rely on simple, cost-effective diagnostic methods like fasting blood glucose levels and/or random glucose tests, as glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) testing is not widely available and where available is not reliable in making a diagnosis of DM because of high prevalence of haemoglinopathy.

First-line treatment typically includes lifestyle modification (diet and exercise) and metformin, which is inexpensive and effective. Insulin therapy may be challenging due to high cost and regular monitoring, but is crucial in Type 1 diabetes. Patient education and family support are essential, especially in managing dietary and medication adherence. Early patient referral for specialist care helps to achieve early glycaemic control and prevention of developing complications.

International Diabetes Federation (IDF): Guidelines on the management of Type 2 diabetes have been adapted for low-resource settings. They recommend lifestyle interventions, metformin, and sulfonylureas as initial treatments. Injectable insulin is added for patients failing oral therapies. WHO Guidelines: Focus on diabetes prevention through public health measures like reducing obesity and promoting physical activity, in addition to basic management protocols.

The most common cause of thyroid disorder is autoimmune disease, not iodine deficiency. Iodized salt is widely available

Rely on clinical assessment (goitre size) and simple thyroid function tests (TSH and free T4) if available.

Use of levothyroxine in hypothyroidism and carbimazole is used for patients with thyrotoxicosis, although careful dosing is necessary due to cost and availability issues. In iodine-deficient regions, public health measures like iodine supplementation are recommended.

WHO Iodine Supplementation Guidelines: These focus on preventing iodine deficiency in populations, primarily through iodized salt programs and iodine supplementation in pregnant women and children.

Adrenal insufficiency, though less common, can be life-threatening if not managed properly. It often arises due to infections like tuberculosis (TB) and indiscriminate use of steroids, which can damage the adrenal glands.

Clinical suspicion should be raised in patients with symptoms like weight loss, fatigue, hypotension, and hyperpigmentation, especially in those with a history of TB.

Hydrocortisone replacement therapy is essential. Due to limited access, physicians may rely on lower-cost steroids such as prednisone.

WHO and Local Protocols: Recognizing adrenal insufficiency in TB-endemic regions, WHO recommends screening for adrenal involvement in disseminated TB and early steroid therapy initiation.

Growth disorders, especially due to growth hormone deficiency and malnutrition, are common concerns in paediatric endocrinology in sub-Saharan Africa.

Growth monitoring, including regular height and weight measurements, is crucial. Growth hormone (GH) testing may not be readily available, so clinical diagnosis often relies on physical signs and growth patterns.

Address malnutrition as a primary cause of growth failure. For GH deficiency, hormone therapy is expensive and often unavailable, so interventions focus on nutritional and public health measures.

WHO Growth Standards: Provide a framework for monitoring child growth, with emphasis on early detection of growth disorders and malnutrition.

With urbanization and lifestyle changes, obesity and metabolic syndrome are emerging as major health issues in sub-Saharan Africa, increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.

Use waist circumference and body mass index (BMI) as simple, cost-effective methods to identify obesity.

Lifestyle modification is the first-line approach, with emphasis on culturally relevant dietary interventions and increased physical activity. Medication for weight loss may be limited, and bariatric surgery is rarely an option.

IDF Guidelines: Address management of metabolic syndrome and emphasize low-cost interventions such as lifestyle changes and basic medication for associated conditions like hypertension and diabetes.

In sub-Saharan Africa, osteoporosis and vitamin D deficiency are often underdiagnosed and undertreated due to limited diagnostic tools like bone density scans and vitamin D testing.

Clinical diagnosis relies on history of fractures, signs of bone fragility, and calcium deficiency. Radiological diagnosis may be used where available.

Calcium and vitamin D supplementation are recommended, especially in older adults and postmenopausal women. Nutritional advice to increase intake of calcium-rich foods (where available) and exposure to sunlight is important.

WHO Guidelines on Osteoporosis: Focus on prevention through adequate calcium intake, vitamin D, and physical activity, with pharmacologic treatment only in severe cases.

Pituitary tumours and disorders such as Cushing's disease and acromegaly are rare but challenging to manage in sub-Saharan Africa due to limited access to advanced imaging (e.g., MRI) and endocrinological care.

Suspicion arises from clinical features like unusual growth, changes in facial structure, or menstrual irregularities. Imaging may not be widely available, so diagnosis often relies on clinical acumen.

Surgical treatment for pituitary tumours is limited to specialized centers, so management is largely symptomatic.

Local and International Guidelines: For acromegaly and Cushing's disease, where available, the use of somatostatin analogs and adrenal steroid inhibitors is recommended, but access is often a barrier.

1. Limited Access to Care: Endocrinologists are scarce, especially in rural areas. General practitioners often manage endocrine disorders with limited knowledge and resources. 2. Lack of Diagnostic Tools: Access to specialized tests like hormone assays, imaging, and genetic testing is often limited to tertiary care centers and expensive private laboratories. 3. Cost of Medication: Hormonal therapies (e.g., insulin, thyroid hormone, growth hormone) can be prohibitively expensive for patients, limiting adherence and access. 4. Cultural and Educational Barriers: Traditional beliefs and low health literacy can affect patient adherence to treatment plans, especially for chronic diseases like diabetes and thyroid disorders.